Background information about Ophelia

John Everett Millais: Ophelia (detail)
Oil painting. 1852.

 The story behind this picture is actually pretty hilarious. Elizabeth Siddal, whose the model for Ophelia (and went on to become muse/model to most of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood and later married Dante Gabriel Rossetti), was forced to lie in a bathtub full of water in her clothes for this. Since it was winter, Millais placed oil lamps under the tub to keep the water warm, but he got so carried away sketching that he let them go out. She got a severe cold and her father sent him the hefty medical bill!

Immediate Physiological Adaptations to Training

Heart Rate

Indicates the number of times the heart beat per minute (bpm). The resting heart rate is our heart rate when it is completely at rest. Averaging up to72bpm, athletes can go as low as 27-28bpm. For an unfit person, the heart rate will increase as the duration of their activity is longer.

Stroke Volume

When exercise increases, the amount of blood that discharges increases considerably. Stroke Volume is determined by the ability to fill the ventricles by blood volume and the ability to empty the ventricles as a result of ventricular contractions. There is a significant difference in stroke volume between unfit and fit people. The stroke volume of unfit people would be around 60-80mls/beat and athletes will reach up to 160mls/beat. A more forceful contraction would mean a more complete emptying of the left ventricle with each beat. This also means more blood returning to the heart and thus effective in providing blood (containing oxygen) to the body.

Cardiac Output
Increases with exercise similar to that of the Stroke Volume. The cardiac output is the product of the heart rate and stroke volume

Heart Rate x Stroke volume = Cardiac Output (CO)
e.g.
60bpm x 100ml/b = 6000ml/min

Oxygen Uptake
Most significant improvements in response to aerobic training are in oxygen uptake-s sometimes called aerobic power or VO2. The body consumes small amounts of oxygen at rest and increases during exercise because of the mitochondria in the cells demand more oxygen to enable them to provide additional energy. The maximal oxygen uptake is the best indicator of cardio respiratory endurance because it indicates the maximal amount of oxygen muscles can absorb and utilise at that level of work. Training increases V02 maximum heart rate even in an 8-12 week period and there is an approximately 15-20% increase for a typical inactive person who applies the FITT formula over a six month period.

Lung Capacity
Both cardiovascular system and the respiratory system need to be sufficient in supplying adequate energy through providing blood and absorbing it through the lungs. The lung capacities in males are around 6000mls while it is relatively less in females. Lung volumes change little or don’t change with training (the amount of air that can be expelled after maximal inspiration increases slightly).

Haemoglobin Level
Haemoglobin is the substance in the blood that binds to oxygen and transports it around the body. Each blood cell contains 250million haemoglobin molecules and is capable of carrying considerable quantities of oxygen. Women have lower haemoglobin levels due to V02 max values and this is transported mainly by red blood cells. One way of increasing is to train at high altitudes and general training programs can be increased up to 20%.

Muscle Hypertrophy
Is the enlargement of muscles and production of greater force. This response is particularly important to activities tat exert a huge amount of muscular strength and power. Resistance training is the most efficient way of improving hypertrophy. Hypertrophy is most efficiently produced through high volume exercise which is a result of several sets of an exercise—usually between three and five sets of eight to 20 repetitions. This type of training will obviously require a relatively low intensity as measured by the actual resistance lifted. 5. It is the repeated use of sets and reps that stimulates the body to adapt by increasing muscle size and thereby strength.

Effect on Slow Twitch Muscle Fibres
Slow Twitch The slow muscles are more efficient at using oxygen to generate more fuel (known as ATP) for continuous, extended muscle contractions over a long time. They fire more slowly than fast twitch fibres and can go for a long time before they fatigue. Therefore, slow twitch fibres are great at helping athletes run marathons and bicycle for hours.
Fast Twitch Because fast twitch fibres use anaerobic metabolism to create fuel, they are much better at generating short bursts of strength or speed than slow muscles. However, they fatigue more quickly. Fast twitch fibres generally produce the same amount of force per contraction as slow muscles, but they get their name because they are able to fire more rapidly. Having more fast twitch fibres can be an asset to a sprinter since she needs to quickly generate a lot of force.

Types of Training

Training is essential in preparing the athletes adequately. The type of training necessary is dependent on the spot, skill requirements or activity. Different activity would mean different training methods for athletes.

This principle is split to three types of trainings:

• aerobic
• strength
• flexibility

Aerobic Training- Uses oxygen as the main energy supplier

• Fartlek Training - 'Fartlek' means speed play. This type of training means that participants will experience different speed and terrain which require different uses of energy systems. Because this training is continious, the aerobic system is the predominant energy system. With frequent busts of speed, the anaerobic system is developed. Parts of training may require regular bursts of speed eveery two or three minutes, running up and down sandhills, group running with changing leadership, cross-country running, covering a variety of training types. It is beneficial for activities such as rubgy and basketball where the change of energy systems change constantly.
• Continuous Training- This training would require a sustained effort without rest intervals. This needs to continue for 20 minutes before stopping and slow distance running is standard for those who need to improve condition, working at 60-80% of their MHR. High intensity work of moderate duration will work the athlete to up to 90% of the maximum heart hate and for endurance running programs, the participant must jog above 30 mins for improvement
• Interval Training- Is useful in alternating sessions of work and recovery as well giving the participant the ability to work in both aerobic and anaeorbic energy systems. With this method, the athlete is given an amount of work at a particular time and is allowed a period of time to recover. The the task is them repeated many times in the same manner. This avoids fatigue because tehre is a recovery of period between sessions and the level of intensity is related to the length of work interval. if 100% effort is required, the work is shorter.
• Circuit Training- Will benefit towards the muscular endurance and strenth than aerobic capacity. The process involves moving  from one 'station' to another and each station can have a time limit to improve fitness levels. Depending on the type of activity (aerobic or anaerobic), the 'stations' must have the required skill of which the participant will work towards. this tests effectiveness of the overload principle.
• Aerobics- Is a popular form of conditioning that improves flexibility, strength and heart and lung fitness. The body is put into a conditioning phase where the heart remains in the zone for 20-30 mins and a cool down phase. This is commonly used as a means of providing variety to other programs.

Strength Training

Can be divided into three categories: Isotonic Programs (the raising/lowering, pushing/pulling free weights to contract/lenthen muscles fibres), Isometric Programs (participants develop strength bby applying a resistance and using exercises which do not change muscle lenth) and Isokinetic Programs (Participants use elaborate machines to ensure the resistance applied to muscle group is uniform throughout).

Flexibility Training

Muscles require not only strength but length. Flexibility is essentiala for prevention of injury, improved coordination between muscle groups, muscular relaxation, decreasing soreness and tightnesss following exercise and increases range of movement around joints, maximising performance potential.

ADDADADA MORE CRAP INTO IT LOL.

Principles of Training

The performace of an athlete depends on the types of training they have and their effectiveness. Some activities require certain movements or different training to suit the type of techniques but these principles must be applied as a part of the training in order to maximise the performance of an athlete.

Specifity

Specifity implies that if there is a similar relationship between the activities chosen and the training, it will be easier for the person to perform and this making them focused on what is to be done. This principle is particularly important when considering the development of energy systems, muscle groups and components of fitness.

Metabolic Specifity means that the athlete must train to which energy system or system requires them to be able to perform in their highest level. Eg. a short-term explosive level would require development within the Anaerobic energy systems.

Progressive Overload

This type of training implies that adaptations will occur when the training load is greater than normal and it will progressively improve fitness which will allow the body to work at a higher intensity level. However, adaptations will not occur if the 'overload is too small or too big'. If too much strain is put on the athlete, they become subjected to fatigue.

Progressive Overload follows the process through frequency, intensity and duration and will allow the athlete to continually improve this is done in a longer period.



Progressive Overload shown on the image (from google)

Reversibility
The effects of training programs are made reversible. Lack of training will cause the "detraining effect" which applies in strength, aerobic and flexibility. The principle states that if training ceases, the gains made will be officially lost. Big gains will also mean more to lose. Training at around 70% HMR will prevent deterioration from happening and runners who are injured should engage in a similar activity such as swimming or cycling

Training Thresholds
Training Thresholds can usually be calculated in heart rate. It refers to a level of exercise inteinsity that is sufficient to cause a training effect. So in order to gain physical improvement no matter how small, the body must work at a level intensity that will cause our bodies to respond. Aerobic threshold would mean working above the 70% maximum heart rate.

Warm up/Cool Down
Each training sessions contains warm up, training and cool down. The purpose of this is to:

• reduce the risk of injury
• increase body temperature
• mentally prepare the athlete
• stimulate the cardioresiratory

Each warm up should have general aerobic activity, specific flexibility exercises, callisthemics (star jumps or sit ups to increase blood flow) and skill rehearsal. Warm ups should be sustained for 10 minutes and those who require explosive movements will take longer. Cool downs help to disperse the alctate acid in the body.

Variety
Same drills and routines in every training session may lead athletes to boredom. The coach musc continually develop the required attributes in using different techniques to ensure that the athlete is challenged not only by the activity but by initiative and implementation. Applications such as aerobic training, strenth training and flexibility training can be used to improve a person's performace.

Energy Systems

The human body has a number of systems that supply energy. This enables the body to function to the most efficient level to accomodate the functions of the body from basic movement to the blood circulation. The body requires energy to excert any physical force to engage in an activity. The body has a complex storage of energy that it only becomes energy when needed and is not stored in a solid manner. Our bodies have the advantage of not having to carry energy in whole but rather, the usage of chemical bonds and reaction towards a few triggers(heat in particular) will provide this.

The body stores it's energy chemically and is measured in kilojoules(kj). Foods have different amounts of energy- fat having the highest energy content compared to proteins and carbohydrates. The chemical potential energy in food must be converted to mechanical energy (kinetic or movement energy) and the energy is used to drive muscular contraction during movement.

The process

ATP production consists of a large moelcule called adenosine (A) and three smaller melocules called phosphates (P). Each of the phosphates is held together by high energy bonds. When the last phosphate is detatched, it expels heat and energy and the energy stored in bonds between phosphates is transferred to the cells. In muscle cells, ATP allows muscle fibres to contract and makes movements possible.



My translation of ATP production

 If the ATP is used up, it turns into ADP (adenosine diphosphate) and because it is in this state, it does not provide energy. ADP however, is not a waste product and can be reused and this gives us the ability to function with a limited amount of ATP through the process of rebuilding and resynthesis.

Introducing the Systems
There are three systems that rebuild and create ATP and this is done according to the physical needs of the body- The  Alactacid System (ATP/PC), Lactic Acid System (Glycolytic)and the Aerobic System(Oxygen). The body uses one or a combination to make sure our energy needs are met and the continually resynthesised ATP provides us energy to power and bodily functions to perform additional work regardless of duration and intenisty. The systems are generally called energy pathways becayse they supply ATP but use different processes. Alactacid and Lactic Acid Systems are both called anaerobic pathways because they do not require oxygen for the resynthesis of ATP through oxygen. The Aerobic system produced using this system relies on the availability of sufficient oxygen in the cells.

Alactacid System
The residual supplies of ATP in the body aare very limited and the body is capable for one explosive muscular contraction (a jump or a sprint). One explosive movement causes the ATP molecule to 'split'. Providing energy for muscular contractions. Further muscular work is relied on the molecule Creatine Phosphate(CP) which is also stored in the muscle tissues. The CP is split so that the ADP gains a phosphate molecule and ATP can be broken down again once reformed. However, CP lasts for only 10-12 seconds and take approximately 2 minutes to be restored.

The system allows immediate supply of ATP molecules whether or not oxygen is available. The supply is mostly provided by CP which has approcimately 5 times greter energy than ATP. Since there is a high demand of ATP, CP is used as a compensation for the required phosphate.The usage of this system would be according to the physical demand usually created for a sustained, naximal or near maximal work as a result.

ATP supplies exhaust after 2 seconds and the CP in 10-12 seconds which, if the body attempts anything longer than the duration will mean fatigue as it is caused by the inability for the system to continually resynthesise. Heat is also produced during the muscular contractions. The system recovers quickly from exercise- in 2 minutes ATP and CP supplies would be restored and 50% of creatine phosphate is recovered during the first 30 seconds.

Lactic Acid System
After 10 -12 seconds, the CP supplies will be completely exhausted and even oxygen is not sufficiently available even thoughtthere is an increase in breathing rate because of effort. Note that it takes time for the blood to transport oxygen in the lungs. This system turns to the glucose supply called glycogen. These are  found in the pancreas, liver and the muscle and immediate sugars can be attained through the bloodstream as it naturally circulates with the blood. This process is called glycolysis and is much more abundant than CP. The process of the usage of glycogen is called aerobic glycolysis- glucose is broken down in the absence of oxygen to produce energy.

Carbohydrates is the only fuel that can be used by the Lactic Acid System and exists in two forms:
-Glucose in the blood
-Storage form called glycogen

The Lactic Acid System provides ATP quickly but also consumes large amounts of glucose and the duration of the system is dependent on the intensity of the activity. Maximal effort will cause exhaustion in 30 seconds. An effort of around 80% will last at 4 minutes and probably longer for moderate intensity activity. If the glucose have all been used up and the body is pushing for more energy and more time is needed for recovery, this will cause levels of lactic acid to build up within the muscle cells and thus fatigue.

Lactic acid can affect the person's performace depending on the rate of removal. The more intense the activity is, the higher the build up. The body produces this because carbohydrates are being metabolised instead of fat. High levels of lactic acid will prevent the muscles to contract and this causes rapid deterioration. The rate of recovery will be around 30 mins where the lactate acid accumulated will be converted back to glycogen in the liver.

Aerobic System
Continuous physical activity will require the precence of oxygen to ensure the continuation of muscular contraction. Oxygen is not immediately abundant and is gradual in supplying the muscle cells with oxygen-enriched blood. This third energy pathway is the predominant supplier of ATP. Aerobic metabolism is the breakdown of fuel in the presence of oxygen to produce  ATP and this is the process of fuel degradion as glucose, fat and protein (in some cases) are broken down for energy source. -This system can use a range of energy sources initially starting with carbohydrates then fat (if activity goes on for an hour).

The aerobic system is extremely efficient in the metabolism of fuel and provision of energy. The system is able to produce a relatively bigger amount of moles than the Lactic Acid System. The total amount of glycogen in the body is 350 grams and is sufficient for 12 hours or rest or one hour of hard work. In exercises such as netball or football, it will last for approximately six hours and for marathon runners it would only last for two.

Large supplies of fat being produced used jointly and sparingly will ensure that the body can operate for long periods of time. however, because the aeorbic system is so versatile in fule usage, the fatigue is caused by slow twitch muscles that do most of the work. The glycogen level in the fibres will decrease dramatically and when it runs out, the muscle tires. Fatigue is also a result of the exhasustion of carbohydrate and the reliance of the energy fat. - Increasing the body temperature and rate of respiration.

Biproducts such as carbon dioxide and water are not necessarily harmful as carbon dioxide is exhaled. The rate of recovery would be dependent on the duration of usage. If the glycogen storages have not been depleted, it will take a much less period compared to the it being used for hours then, it may take days for full recovery.